Facial Augmentation
Facial Augmentation Melbourne
Flat poorly defined cheeks … which can make even young people look tired or ill. A face lacking attractive shape. A weak brow that allows the outer eye to droop. A recessive chin or jawline.
A good bone structure is the key to a beautifully shaped face: it is the key to many of the attributes we find most appealing, such as fuller cheekbones, a well proportioned brow and good jawline definition.
Interestingly, a good bone structure also means a face will age more slowly – we all know people who have a lovely bone structure and who appear to age well. The reverse is also true – any area on a face where there is a poorly developed skeleton will be the first to show ageing changes, due to lack of support from the bones. We also lose bone mass as we age, which contributes to the problem.
Most of us have at least one area of our facial skeleton that would benefit from a subtle augmentation. The ability of augmentation to subtly transform a face has made it a valuable procedure, either as part of other surgery or on its own. For those who already use injectable products to augment their face, it offers a permanent solution.
As in all aesthetic surgery, there are different techniques. Some augmentation takes a little more effort but rewards with an individualised, tailored result. That is the reason we use a hydroxyapatite for augmentation, and not pre-formed ‘one size fits all’ silicone implants.
What is Hydroxyapatite?
Hydroxyapatite is a coral product, almost bio-identical to bone, that can be formed to a shape that meets the individual needs of each patient. It has been used in orthopaedic surgery for many years – the benefit for aesthetic surgery is this ability to mould it to the exact size and shape required. The video explains more about this.
Pre-formed silicone implants are easier for the surgeon, but their shape may not be the best for the patient: in augmentation, subtlety and individuality is necessary for a natural result. Dr Bryan Mendelson has been using hydroxyapatite exclusively for over 15 years, in over a thousand augmentations.
We have detailed information notes about hydroxyapatite augmentation. If you would like to receive a copy, please contact us. We encourage you to read, visit us and ask questions until you feel absolutely confident with your level of knowledge: this is the most important ‘first step’ in your personal journey of plastic surgery.
‘Augmentation with hydroxyapatite is an example of the way a very small improvement can make a significant aesthetic difference to a face. As is always the case, an advanced, individualised technique is the best way to attain a truly natural and lasting result.’
Technique: The Critical Difference
Dr Bryan Mendelson is known for only using the most advanced, modern techniques in aesthetic surgery. His decision to use hydroxyapatite for augmentation arrives from the same principle: that only the highest quality technique should ever be used on a human face, which is such an integral part of people’s happiness and confidence.
“Any surgical or invasive procedure carries risks. Before proceeding, you should seek a second opinion from an appropriately qualified health practitioner.”
To continue reading about facial augmentation, click here.
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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12572580 Surgical Anatomy of the Ligamentous Attachments in the Temple and Periorbital Regions Article in Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery · May 2000 DOI: CITATIONS READS 129 1,366 3 authors, including: Centre for Facial Plastic Surgery 111 PUBLICATIONS 2,987 CITATIONS Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: complete project on Breast Reconstruction View project All content following this page was uploaded by Bryan C Mendelson on 25 September 2020. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Cosmetic Surgical Anatomy of the Ligamentous Attachments in the Temple and Periorbital Regions Christopher J. Moss, M.B., B.S., F.R.A.C.S., Dip.Anat., Bryan C. Mendelson, F.R.C.S.(E), F.R.A.C.S., F.A.C.S., and G. Ian Taylor, F.R.C.S., F.R.A.C.S., M.D. Melbourne, Australia This study documents the anatomy of the deep attach- ments of the superficial fasciae within the temporal and periorbital regions. A highly organized and consistent The regional nerves and vessels display constant and predictable relationships with both the fascial planes and their ligamentous attachments. Knowledge of these rela- tionships allows the surgeon to use the tissue planes and The patterns of arrangement of the layers of superficial fascia in the cheek,1±9 forehead,10 ±13 scalp,14 and temple15,16 have been well de- scribed. This superficial fascia in the temple, forehead, and periorbital regions meets the definition of a SMAS layer as described in the midface.1 The superficial fascia thus extends like a mask throughout the whole of the face. The descriptions of these layers have found wide application to aesthetic surgery.17±19 The areolar tissue plane beneath the fibrous layer of the superficial fascia of the temple has been given numerous names.14,20 A subsuperfi- cial fascial plane is located deep to the galea in the upper face, the SMAS in the midface, and the platysma in the neck. The ease of dissec- tion along this plane in the scalp and forehead results from the relative paucity of connective tissue attachments between the galea and the underlying deep fascia or pericranium. The superficial fascial layer is retained by a complex system of deep attachments that arise from the underlying deep fascia/periosteum. The subSMAS plane that contains these attach- ments is therefore not always a simple cleavage plane. This explains why surgical dissection is considerably more complicated in the midfa- cial, temporal, and periorbital regions than in the scalp. In the cheek, these deep attachments have been defined as the zygomatic, masseteric, and gery.18,19,23,24 The ligaments act as markers to the position of the facial nerve branches in the cheek.19 The zygomatic and buccal branches emerge from the masseteric fascia and cross the subSMAS plane to the underside of the SMAS. This pas- sage occurs just medial to the cheek ligaments. The ligaments therefore retain the overlying SMAS and protect the facial nerve branches as they cross this glide plane. In facial rejuvenation surgery, the deep- plane method achieves a tightening of the me- dial cheek soft tissues. After the retaining liga- ments are released, the superficial fascia can be drawn posteriorly. The facial nerve branches are simultaneously identified and preserved during surgical ligament release. Previous authors have provided a great deal Dr. Taylor is from the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery at the Royal Melbourne Hospital. Received for publication June 1, 1999; revised August 27, 1999. Presented at the 30th Scientific Congress of the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, in New York, New York, on May 3, 1997. 1475 1476 of information on the deep attachments in the cheek.18,21 Recently, studies have begun to in- vestigate deep attachments found in the tem- poral12,25 and periorbital regions.26,27 These ar- eas are therefore the focus of this article. The origin and pattern of migration of the embryonic facial muscles that occur in the mid- face also occur in the upper face.28,29 Accord- ingly, it could be expected that the upper face would display similar tissue and neurovascular arrangements. The relationships of the facial nerve16,30 ±32 and sensory nerves33 to the fascial planes in the upper face have received much attention. Al- though helpful in identifying the layer of pas- sage of the facial nerve branches, these studies do not define their exact course. Currently, surface anatomy landmarks are widely used in locating the facial nerve.34,35 However, surface anatomy is not sufficiently precise for intraop- erative dissection when facial nerve branches are involved. This investigation commenced with the hy- pothesis that, as in the cheek, the internal soft- tissue ligaments of the temporal and perior- bital regions display a constant anatomy with predictable relationships to the temporal branches of the facial nerve. The aim of the study was therefore to define this not previ- ously described anatomy. Although the data reported in this article pertain only to the tem- poral and periorbital regions, they are derived from a comprehensive study investigating the superficial tissues of the whole face and neck. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study involved dissection of 22 facial halves. All were performed on fresh cadavers of normal body mass index with ages ranging from 60 to 78 years. Preserved (formalinized) cadavers were excluded because they distorted the delicate connective tissue and facial nerve anatomy. Of the 22 dissections, 10 were per- formed following intraarterial vascular injec- tion with a lead oxide mixture36,37 and 12 were performed in fresh specimens without arterial injection. These data were combined with the anatomic recordings from several hundred in- traoperative dissections including open coro- nal brow and temporal lifts and endoscopic temple lifts. Dissection was performed under 33 loupe magnification according to a standardized technique that commenced with a coronal in- cision, entered the subgalea plane, and then PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 proceeded in a caudal direction over the fore- head and the temporal, periorbital, and facial regions. Loose areolar tissue was gently dis- sected away, preserving the dense connective tissue attachments between the deep and su- perficial tissues. The precise locations of these attachments were recorded on a standardized worksheet with reference to specific fixed bony landmarks. The relationships of the major neu- rovascular structures to both the connective tissue attachments and the fixed skeletal land- marks were documented carefully with appro- priate measurements. The cadavers that underwent initial vascular injection were dissected with an identical tech- nique and provided additional information on the relationships between the arterial supply and both the connective tissue layers and their attachments. The uninjected specimens pro- vided detailed information on the cutaneous sensory nerves and fine motor branches of the facial nerve. RESULTS Arrangement of the Tissue Layers The tissues are arranged into two basic layers that may be summarized under the headings of the superficial and the deep fasciae. A contin- uous layer of superficial fascia comprises the galea occipitofrontalis, the superficial tempo- ral fascia, the SMAS of the zygomatic and cheek regions, and the platysma. This SMAS system receives the insertion of those facial muscles arising directly from bone such as the zygomaticus major and minor; it also envelops the flat muscles such as orbicularis oculi that have important attachments around their pe- rimeter to the SMAS layers. An easily developed surgical plane exists be- tween these deep and superficial tissue planes. This subsuperficial fascial plane is a potential space that mainly contains loose areolar or Classification of Ligament Morphology The fibrous attachments retaining the SMAS layer and skin to the deep tissues may be col- lectively referred to as the ligamentous attach- ments of the superficial tissues. The individual ligaments have predictable and constant loca- Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1477 tions; however, they vary in the density of their fibrous tissue. Clear description of the ligamentous anat- omy in the superficial tissues of the head and neck has required the introduction of a num- ber of new terms. The ligaments have been classified according to three morphological forms: true ligaments, septa, and adhesions (Fig. 1). True ligament. A true ligament is similar to a skeletal ligament in that it is a discrete cylin- drical arrangement of fibrous tissue that is sur- rounded by fatty tissue. True ligaments were found in the medial midface and lower face and provided the greatest latitude of movement of all the attachments (Fig. 1). True ligaments arise from either the deep fascia or the perios- teum. They then cross the subSMAS plane to the undersurface of the SMAS, where they di- vide into numerous branches in a FIG. 1. Classification of ligamentous morphology. The major tissue planes from deep to superficial include the deep fascia/pericranium, the subSMAS plane, the SMAS/galea, subcu- taneous tissue, and the skin. The diagram shows the three morphologic forms of ligaments that pass through the subSMAS plane to the superficial tissues. These are classified into true ligaments, septa, and adhesions. 1478 subcutaneous fascial system, the retinacula cu- tis.9,14,38 Examples include the zygomatic and masseteric ligaments (Fig. 1). Septum. A septum is a fibrous wall passing between the deep fascia and the undersurface of the SMAS (Fig. 1). This arrangement permits mobility only in a plane perpendicular to the deep line of attachment of the septum. Most of the septa defined within the head and neck are located in the temporal and periorbital regions. Examples include the inferior temporal sep- tum, the superior temporal septum, and the periorbital septum (Fig. 1). Adhesion. The third form is a PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 and adhesions retain the SMAS plane only, and considerable mobility may still occur at more superficial layers. Aside from the preauricular and parotid regions, adhesions were found only in the forehead and temporal regions. Exam- ples include the temporal (Fig. 1) and the su- praorbital ligamentous adhesions. The deep attachments of the superficial fas- cia in the temporal and periorbital regions comprised only septa and adhesions. No true ligaments were seen in these regions. The Temporal Ligamentous Adhesion The temporal ligamentous adhesion (tem- poral ligament) supports the region immedi- ately superior to the eyebrow at the junction of its middle and lateral thirds (Figs. 2 and 3). Located at the intersection of the temporal, frontal, and periorbital regions, it is a well- FIG. 2. Periorbital and temporal ligamentous attachments with major neurovascular rela- tionships: lateral view. Temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA), supraorbital ligamentous adhe- sion (SLA), superior temporal septum (STS), inferior temporal septum (ITS), periorbital septum (PS), lateral brow thickening of periorbital septum (LBT), lateral orbital thickening of perior- bital septum (LOT), sentinel vessel (SV), temporal branches of facial nerve (TFN), zygomati- cotemporal nerve (ZTN), zygomaticofacial nerve (ZFN). Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1479 FIG. 3. Periorbital and temporal ligamentous attachments with major neurovascular rela- tionships: anterior view. Temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA), supraorbital ligamentous ad- hesion (SLA), superior temporal septum (STS), inferior temporal septum (ITS), periorbital septum (PS), lateral brow thickening of periorbital septum (LBT), lateral orbital thickening of periorbital septum (LOT), sentinel vessel (SV), temporal branches of facial nerve (TFN), zy- gomaticotemporal nerve (ZTN), zygomaticofacial nerve (ZFN). 1480 PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 FIG. 4. Right temple. Subject's nose is to the right. Hairline incision across the forehead with retraction of the flap. The retractor is in the superficial temporal fascia (STF). The scissors are releasing the temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA) at the anterior end of the superior temporal septum (STS), which separates the frontal periosteum (FP) medially from the deep temporal fascia (DTP) laterally. The superior extension of the temporal ligamentous adhesion is the superior temporal septum (STS). The location of the deep and superficial attachments of the inferior temporal septum (ITS) are defined by the line of the fine blue suture. FIG. 5. Further elevation of the superficial fascia, deep to the superficial temporal fascia (STF), by releasing the inferior temporal septum. The temple is divided into two parts by the line of attachment of the inferior temporal septum. Above, no vital anatomy is present. In the lower compartment lies the detailed neurovascular anatomy. This contains lobulated fat on the floor. Unnamed minor ligamentous attachments (marked with blue ink) are seen centrally and related to the emerging branches of the zygomaticotemporal nerve (ZTN, yellow beads). The sentinel vessel (SV) crosses the lower temporal compartment inferior to the inferior temporal septum (ITS) just posterior to the frontal process of the zygoma. The green background and green beads display the temporal branches of the facial nerve (TFN) within the fatty layer deep to the superficial temporal fascia, which forms the roof of the triangular compartment. The dotted blue line demarcates the upper border of the supraorbital ligamentous adhesion (SLA). defined keystone structure in that three liga- ments radiate from each of its angles. These are the superior temporal septum, the inferior temporal septum, and the supraorbital adhe- sion (Figs. 4 through 6). The temporal liga- ment arises from the frontal bone periosteum as an expansion at the anterior end of the superior temporal septum. The temporal ligament inserts into the su- perficial fascia at the junction of the superficial temporal fascia and the galea on the deep surface of the frontalis muscle (Fig. 4). This ligament is approximately 20 mm high and 15 mm at its base (Fig. 3). It allows 6 mm of horizontal mobility of the overlying galeal lay- ers. The base is located parallel to the arcus marginalis of the orbital rim at a distance of 10 mm above it. The superior temporal septum. This septum arises from the periosteum along the superior temporal line of the skull and inserts into the line of junction between the superficial tempo- ral fascia and the galea (Fig. 1). Anteriorly, this line of junction occurs between the superficial temporal fascia and the galea lining the deep surface of the lateral border of the frontalis muscle. Whereas it more closely resembles a septum posteriorly, it becomes a broad adhe- Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1481 FIG. 6. Further elevation of the superficial temporal fascia. The three boundaries of the lower temporal compartment (L.T.C., shaded area) are seen, i.e., the upper border of the zygomatic arch (ZA), the posterior border of the frontal process (FPZ), and the inferior temporal septum (ITS). The smooth surface of the deep temporal fascia above the inferior temporal septum forms the floor of the upper temporal compartment (U.T.C.). SV, sentinel vessel. sion at its anterior termination 30 mm from the supraorbital rim. This expanded end is the tem- poral ligamentous adhesion (Figs. 2 and 4). The inferior temporal septum. This septum takes an oblique course along a line extending from the lateral corner of the temporal liga- ment toward the external acoustic meatus (Fig. 1). It comprises The septum is found an average of 27 mm above the zygoma at the level of the temporal border of the frontal process of the zygoma and 21 mm above the superior border of the zygoma at its midportion. The average heights for the level of the division of the deep tempo- ral fascia into its deep and superficial leaves are 37 mm and 27 mm above the zygoma, respec- tively. The division of the deep temporal fascia into superficial and deep leaves is therefore above the level of the inferior temporal sep- tum. The inferior temporal septum forms the su- perior border of a triangular lower zygoma they comprise the named zygo- matic (true) ligaments. The supraorbital (ligamentous) adhesion. The density of this fibrous adhesion varies widely. The more dense adhesions maintain a greater restraining effect on the superficial fascia of the brow, thus reducing brow mobility. The supraorbital ligamentous adhesion arises from the frontal bone above the orbital rim, extending between the temporal ligament and the origin of the corrugator muscle (Fig. 3). The mmabove the orbital rim. The ligament is condensed around the branches of the su- praorbital nerve and the corrugator muscle origin. The supraorbital adhesion supports the deep galea which encloses a fat pad and the lower frontalis muscle. The adhesion allowed minimal mobility, and therefore retained the deep tissues of the lower brow. The corrugator and procerus muscles assist in providing an important dynamic support to the medial brow. Significant mobility of the medial eye- brow can still occur within the tissues superfi- cial to the superficial fascial layer. The periorbital septum. This 1482 PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 FIG. 7. Right temple, shown from above, looking down toward the zygomatic arch. The subject's orbit is to the left, ear to the right. Skin hooks are elevating the superficial temporal fascia from the deep temporal fascia to demonstrate the upper temporal compartment. The attachments of the inferior temporal septum (ITS) are marked by the upper blue line on the underside of the superficial temporal fascia (STF) and the lower blue line on the deep temporal fascia (DTF). The tip of the scissors is in the lower triangular compartment. The inferior temporal septum terminates anteriorly by merging with the temporal ligamen- tous adhesion (TLA). FIG. 8. Same orientation as in Figure 7 after completion of the release of the inferior temporal septum (ITS) and release of the temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA, triangular adhesion outlined with ink). To the left is the supraorbital ligamentous adhesion (SLA) attached above the supraorbital rim. The released deep attachment of the temporal ligamentous adhesion is continuous with the supraorbital ligamentous adhesion. The scissors are beneath the orbital (internal) surface of the periorbital septum (PS). A nonadherent area devoid of ligamentous attachments exists between the periorbital septum and the temporal/ supraorbital ligamentous adhesions. STF, superficial temporal fascia. FIG. 9. Dissection continued inferior to the inferior temporal septum (ITS) within the lower triangular compartment of the temple. Note the fatty tissue within this lower compartment compared with the areolar tissue within the upper compartment. The sentinel vessel (SV) is on the left. The scissors are between the medial and lateral branches of the zygomaticotemporal nerve (ZTN), which are protected by fibrous tissue. Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1483 FIG. 10. Dissection of the underside of the roof of the lower temporal compartment. Multiple temporal facial nerve branches (TFN) are contained within a layer of fibrofatty tissue adherent to the deep surface of the superficial temporal fascia (STF). These branches pass perpendicular to the branches of the zygomaticotemporal nerve (ZTN) as they perforate the superficial temporal fascia. SV, sentinel vein; ITS, inferior temporal septum. FIG. 11. Complete elevation of the superficial flap to the boundaries of the lower temporal compartment. The continuous blue line defines the upper border of the zygomatic arch (ZA). The temporal branches of the facial nerve (TFN) are already located in the roof of the compartment at the inferior border of the compartment. They do not cross to the roof within the boundaries of the compartment. Zygomaticotemporal nerve branches (ZTN) do cross the lower compartment and are clearly defined; their fibrous protection has been dissected free. The fine fibrous attachments (X) at the upper border of the zygomatic arch become progressively more concentrated until the lower border of the arch, where a true ligament can be identified. ITS, inferior temporal septum. FIG. 12. Dissection inferior to the lower temporal space extending over the zygomatic arch (ZA). The ear is seen on the right side. The course of the temporal branches of the facial nerve (TFN, highlighted by green background and indicated by arrows) is defined. These emerge from beneath the lower border of the zygomatic arch (ZA) and pass to the underside of the superficial temporal fascia. In this passage through soft, yellow fat they are protected by definite ligamentous condensations, which attach the superficial temporal fascia to the zygomatic arch. 1484 Superiorly, the orbicularis oculi and frontalis muscles merge in an aponeurosis, each with a layer of galeal fascia on their deep surface. The orbicularis oculi fibers passed superficial to those of the frontalis. The periorbital septum inserts at a At the inferolateral orbital rim, the septum inserts into the deep surface of the orbital component of the orbicularis oculi muscle. Dissected toward its origin at the arcus margi- nalis, the periorbital septum separates into two fascial layers. Internal to the orbital rim, the periorbital septum continues as the orbital sep- tum; external to the orbital rim, it continues as the fibrous periosteum. The thin periorbital septum varies from 1 to 3 mm in thickness, with a height of 7 mm (Fig. 8). The lateral orbital thickening is 7 3 10 mm at its base and is located immediately supero- lateral to the lateral canthal tendon insertion. The smaller lateral brow thickening is 3 3 11 mmand arises from a bony crest on the lateral supraorbital rim. It does not arise from the zygomaticofrontal suture. Both of these liga- ments insert into and retain the deep surface of the orbicularis oculi muscle fascia. Fascial Compartments The upper face and brow are separated into a number of fascial compartments by the ar- rangement of the temporal (ligamentous) ad- hesion, the three ligaments that radiate from it, and the periorbital septum (Fig. 2). The inferior temporal septum divides the temple into the upper temporal compartment and the lower temporal compartment (Fig. 6). The upper temporal compartment is the po- tential space above the inferior temporal sep- tum. Its upper border is the superior temporal septum. The lower temporal compartment is located below the inferior temporal septum; it is bounded inferiorly by the zygomatic arch and anteriorly by the frontal process of the zygoma. The upper compartment has no spe- cific structures crossing and is safe for dissec- tion. However, the triangular lower compart- ment contains the temporal branches of the facial nerve.(Fig. 10). There is no PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 anterior zygoma until the defined zygomatic ligaments are reached. The forehead compartment is limited later- ally by the superior temporal septum and infe- riorly by the supraorbital ligamentous adhe- sion. The periorbital septum divides the subsuper- ficial fascial space of the orbital region into two compartments: orbital and periorbital (Fig. 2). The subsuperficial fascial space of the orbital region, located internal to the orbital rim be- tween the palpebral portion of the orbicularis oculi and the orbital septum, contains loose areolar tissue only. The superficial fascia itself contains fat within its deepest layers in the region of the orbital rim. The subsuperficial fascial compartment of the periorbital region lies external to the rim and contains the attach- ments between the orbital portion of the orbic- ularis oculi and the underlying pericranium. Relationships between Ligaments and Nerves Facial nerve. The 2 to 4 temporal branches of the facial nerve leave the superior pole of the parotid gland by perforating its capsule at the level of the lower border of the zygomatic arch. The nerves then cross the subSMAS plane in- ferior to the zygomatic arch (Fig. 12) to reach the deep surface of the SMAS (Fig. 10). In cross- ing this mobile plane, the nerve branches are protected by fibrous condensations passing from the zygomatic arch to a fat pad on the deep surface of the superficial temporal fascia. They then run in an anterosuperior direction toward the insertion of the temporal ligament (Fig. 2). At the level of the temporal ligament, the main branches of the temporal nerve divide into numerous filamentous branches. These supply the frontalis, corrugator, and upper or- bicularis oculi muscles through their deep sur- face. The nerve to the corrugator passes in a narrow compartment deep to frontalis, bounded superiorly by the supraorbital adhe- sion and inferiorly by the periorbital septum. The sentinel vein39,40 is located immediately inferior to the inferior temporal septum (Fig. 9). The temporal nerve branches display a vari- able relationship to the sometimes duplicated sentinel vein. Although the temporal nerve branches are found both superior and inferior to this vein, they are predominantly located cephalad to the sentinel vein (Fig. 2). Incon- stant smaller nerve branches are found caudal to the sentinel vein. The inferior temporal septum is therefore a Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1485 reliable and identifiable marker for the loca- tion of the temporal nerves as it inserts into the superficial temporal fascia along a line imme- diately cephalad to the most superior temporal nerve branches (Fig. 5). Dissecting in an infe- rior direction, the release of the inferior tem- poral septum (Fig. 7) exposes the temporal nerves. They are surrounded by loose adipose tissue and plastered to the deep surface of the superficial temporal fascia by a thin areolar fascia (Fig. 10). Sensory nerves. Each of the major cutaneous nerves in the region cross the mobile subsuper- ficial fascia plane in association with a named ligamentous attachment. The supraorbital nerve branches pass along the upper periorbital septum to reach the deep galea. The supraorbital ligamentous adhesion is condensed along the course of the nerves. Branches of the infraorbital nerve to the lower eyelid region follow the inferior periorbital septum. Where the periorbital septum attaches to the superficial fascia the respective nerves divide into two groups of branches: those to the eyelid and those to the periorbital tissues. The supratrochlear nerve is an exception, crossing the plane between the heads of the corrugator muscle. The anterior branch of the zygomaticotem- poral nerve is usually related to the lateral orbital ligament; the smaller posterior branches within the lower temporal compart- ment are associated with minor fibrous attach- ments and fine veins (Figs. 5 and 11). The zygomaticofacial nerve emerges through a sin- gle or duplicate foramen in the zygoma and is then associated with the inferolateral portion of the periorbital septum. The zygomaticotemporal and supraorbital cutaneous nerves perforate the superficial fas- cia along the line of the facial nerves branches (Fig. 10). They could therefore be used as additional markers for the location of the facial nerve branches (Fig. 11). DISCUSSION Definition of a Ligament This study raises the important issue of what exactly is the definition of a ªligament.º The Oxford Dictionary41 defines a ligament as ªa band of fibrous tissue binding bones together or any membrane keeping an organ in position.º Al- though the word ligament traditionally de- scribes a connective tissue that restrains bones,42 this definition has subsequently been widened to include ªcutaneous retaining liga- ments.º These are fibrous attachments anchor- ing skin to the underlying deep fascia or peri- osteum and have been described in various locations including the digits,43,44 the face,18,21 and the breast.45,46 Furnas21 introduced the term ªretaining lig- amentsº in the face. He documented four cu- taneous ligaments in the cheek, naming them the zygomatic, mandibular, Stuzin et al.18 further elaborated on the def- inition of these retaining ligaments, also divid- ing them into two groups: the previously de- scribed true osteocutaneous ligaments and a second group that consisted of a coalescence between the deep and superficial fasciae of the face. This therefore widened the definition of retaining ligaments to include defined adhe- sions retaining the superficial to the deep fas- cia. These adhesions retain the overlying skin indirectly through a separate system of fibrous septa that extend from the superficial fascia into dermis.9,14,38 They differ from the discrete osteocutaneous ligaments, which run directly from periosteum to a focal area of dermis. Knize13 recently suggested that, to be consid- ered a retaining ligament, a structure should insert directly into dermis. However, it is im- portant to recognize the vital role of those other ligaments that attach to the superficial fascia yet retain the overlying skin indirectly through the retinacula cutis. The septa and adhesions in the temporal and periorbital regions pass to the superficial fascia and exert their effect on the skin, pre- sumably thorough the retinacula cutis. The true (cutaneous) ligaments branch as they pass through the superficial fascia to the dermis. The three forms of fibrous attachment de- scribed in this article fulfill the criteria of ªlig- aments of the superficial tissuesº and insert into either the superficial fascia or the dermis. 1486 Surgical Applications Connective tissue anatomy. The arrangement of the ligamentous fixation between the under- side of the superficial fascia and the perioste- um/deep temporal fascia provides landmark information for the surgeon operating in this area. The ligamentous attachments demarcate the anatomic spaces in the forehead, temple, and periorbital regions and localize the facial nerve and sensory branches. This superior temporal septum has been re- ferred to by Knize12 as the ªzone of fixation.º At the anterior end of this structure is an expan- sion providing strong attachment to the frontal periosteum medial to the deep temporal fascia. This would seem to be what Knize calls the orbital ligament; however, our observations dif- fer in that this temporal ligament does not extend to the orbital rim. The supraorbital ligamentous adhesion has been noted by Knize,12 who describes it as zone B of fixation in the lower 2 cm of the forehead. It would PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 seem that the periorbital septum has not been described as such before; however, close exam- ination of Knize's12 histologic studies (Fig. 6 of Knize's article, middle sagittal section) shows a fascial septum passing from the deep galea to the orbital rim. Although there was a condensation of the connective tissue in the region of the zygomat- icofacial suture, we did not find a definite lig- ament as described in Knize's article. There was a thickening of the periorbital septum, the lateral brow thickening, which attaches to the orbital rim superior to the zygomaticofacial suture. Relationship of the temporal nerves to the liga- ments. Surgeons have long been cautious about operating in the temple because of the risk of damaging the temporal branch of the facial nerve. This concern has prompted nu- merous anatomic studies to define the trajec- tory or course of the branches.30 ±32 However, these studies have not fully satisfied the intra- FIG. 13. Periorbital and temporal ligamentous attachments indicating the required amount of surgical ligamentous release: lateral view. Green, release for lateral brow lift; yellow, additional release required for upper cheek lift through the temple. Temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA), supraorbital ligamentous adhesion (SLA), superior temporal septum (STS), inferior temporal septum (ITS), periorbital septum (PS), lateral brow thickening of periorbital septum (LBT), lateral orbital thickening of periorbital septum (LOT), sentinel vessel (SV), temporal branches of facial nerve (TFN), zygomaticotemporal nerve (ZTN), zygomaticofacial nerve (ZFN). Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1487 operative requirement of the surgeon in relat- ing the nerve to the planes of dissection as they have referred to external The inferior temporal septum divides the subsuperficial fascial space in the temple into two separate compartments. The triangular lower temporal compartment contained all the ªat riskº anatomic structures of the temple. This is significant for the surgeon in that dis- section can be readily performed within the larger upper temporal compartment all the way to the septum when an abrupt change of approach is required. The inferior temporal septum is readily identified by its After operating through this septum it is imperative that the level of dissection hug the floor of the space, that is, directly on the deep temporal fascia. This is because the temporal branches of the facial nerve course through the roof of the lower temporal compartment immediately abutting the inferior temporal septum. They run parallel to the line of attach- ment of the inferior septum to this roof. The temporal branches are at risk here because the septum ªfixesº the roof of the space close to the floor. The branches run within a The sentinel vessels and both branches of the zygomaticotemporal nerve cross the lower temporal space, floor to ceiling, related to the inferomedial surface of the inferior temporal septum. They can also be safely spared at this juncture by judicious dissection. The majority of the facial nerve branches in the ceiling are in the narrow cephalad space between the sen- tinel vessels and the inferior temporal septum. Accordingly, dissection through the lower tem- poral compartment can be quite safe in regard to the facial nerve, provided the ceiling is lifted off the plane of dissection. Further, dissection can then continue readily inferiorly and ante- riorly across the lower temporal space over the body of the zygoma, or to the periorbital at- tachments. Relationship of the temporal nerves to the sentinel vessels. Previous studies39,40 have related the temporal nerve branches to perforating vessels, which enter the superficial temporal fascia 1 cm lateral to the superolateral angle of the orbit. De la Plaza has named these the ªsentinel vessels of the lateral wall of the orbit,º and he makes the point that they must be electrocoagulated deep to avoid damage to the temporal nerves. The sentinel vessels provide a landmark for the temporal branches of the facial nerve during endoscopic forehead dissection.47 Because the relationship between the senti- nel veins and the temporal nerve branches is somewhat variable, the vessels should be used as a relative landmark for facial nerve anatomy. Sometimes the sentinel vessels are duplicated with tributaries at different vertical levels. Al- though temporal nerve branches are found just cephalad to the sentinel vessels, some also pass caudal to the vessels in an unpredictable fashion. Surgical ligamentous release. Gravitational ag- ing changes of the brow and also the upper cheek can be corrected by surgical reposition- ing after dissection beneath the superficial fas- cial plane. As in The technique of ligamentous release differs between the temple and the cheek. In the tem- ple, the facial nerve is not in immediate danger because it enters the region within the plane of the superficial fascia and therefore does not cross the plane of dissection. The only area of potential danger to the nerve is along the line of the inferior temporal septum. This is be- cause the nerve branches that cross the temple immediately caudal to the septum are held by the septum close to the deep fascia. Accordingly, a swift blunt dissection can be performed in the subgaleal plane of the upper temporal compartment and the forehead with 1488 PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY, April 2000 FIG. 14. Periorbital and temporal ligamentous attachments indicating the required amount of surgical ligamentous release: anterior view. Green, release for lateral brow lift; yellow, additional release required for upper cheek lift through the temple. Temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA), supraorbital ligamentous adhesion (SLA), superior temporal septum (STS), inferior temporal septum (ITS), periorbital septum (PS), lateral brow thickening of periorbital septum (LBT), lateral orbital thickening of periorbital septum (LOT), temporal branches of facial nerve (TFN), zygomaticotemporal nerve (ZTN), zygomaticofacial nerve (ZFN). the knowledge that blunt dissection should cease at the inferior temporal septum. All vital anatomy is inferior to this septum in the lower temporal compartment. The inferior septum is then judiciously released by sharp dissection with small blunt scissors, at all times remaining directly applied to the surface of the deep fas- cia as the temporal branches lie immediately superficial. Once inside the inferior temporal compartment these branches are kept re- tracted out of the field. The inferior temporal compartment is opened by blunt spreading dissection to pro- tect the zygomaticotemporal nerves. Release of Vol. 105, No. 4 / SURGICAL ANATOMY OF LIGAMENTOUS ATTACHMENTS 1489 the ligaments, other than the inferior temporal septum, requires sharp dissection. This can be performed with relative impunity once the temporal branches of the facial nerve are pro- tected by the retractor. The morphology of the ligaments deter- mines the dissection technique. The cheek at- tachments are true ligaments, which have a discrete cylindrical nature. After specific re- lease of these localized attachments, no further dissection is necessary. Unlike the true liga- ments of the cheek, the ligaments of the tem- ple and forehead are septa and adhesions, and therefore involve wide areas of attachment be- tween the deep and superficial fasciae. Release of these regions therefore involves extensive dissection beneath the superficial fascia. Ac- cordingly, elevation of the lateral brow re- quires more extensive ligamentous release than might be expected. Release of only the temporal ligamentous adhesion and the tem- poral septa is insufficient. The supraorbital lig- amentous adhesion and the lateral brow thick- ening of the periorbital septum must also be released (Figs. 13 and 14). The supraorbital ligamentous adhesion usually needs release all the way to the supraorbital nerve, being mind- ful that the lateral branch of the supraorbital nerve is at risk as it approaches the superior temporal septum. If the intended benefit is to include the lateral canthal and upper zygo- matic regions, the periorbital release must be extended to include the lateral orbital thicken- ing at the lateral canthus. To benefit further around to the lateral lower lid, the periorbital septal release is extended around to the zygo- maticofacial nerve. Ligamentous fixation. After the retaining lig- aments are released, the superficial fascia is re- positioned without being placed under tension. The fascia is maintained in its new location by suture fixation between the deep temporal fas- cia and the Aging The development of brow ptosis affects the lateral third of the brow and the temporal region earlier than it affects the medial brow.10,12 The pathogenesis of this complicated aging process is partly explained by the liga- mentous anatomy of these regions. The super- ficial fascial layers of the medial face are strongly retained by connective tissue attach- ments including the temporal ligament, the supraorbital adhesions, and the periorbital sep- tum. In the temporal and lateral brow regions, the superficial tissues are restrained by only the two temporal septa, which provide less fixation than the many strong medial supports. This temporal ligament is located above the junc- tion of the lateral and middle thirds of the eyebrow. Lateral to this the reduction in liga- mentous attachment of the superficial fascia helps explain the earlier ptosis. Bryan C. Mendelson, F.R.C.S.(E), F.R.A.C.S., F.A.C.S. 109 Mathoura Road Toorak 3142 Melbourne, Australia bcm@bmendelson.com.au ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors express their thanks to Kari Colen for her invaluable assistance with the dissections. REFERENCES 1.Mitz, V., and Peyronie, M. The superficial 2.Jost, G., and Levet, Y. Parotid fascia and face lifting: A critical evaluation of the SMAS concept. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 74: 42, 1984. 3.Dzubow, L. M. The fasciae of the face: An anatomic and histologic analysis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 14: 502, 1986. 4.Bosse, J., and Papillon, J. Surgical Anatomy of the SMAS at the Malar Region. In Transactions of the 9th Interna- tional Congress of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. New York: 5.Wassef, M. Superficial fascial and muscular layers in the face and neck: A histological study. Aesthetic Plast. Surg. 11: 171, 1987. 6.Thaller, S. R., Kim, S., Patterson, H., Wildman, M., and Daniller, A. The submuscular aponeurotic system (SMAS): A histologic and comparative anatomy eval- uation. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 86: 690, 1990. 7.Barton, F. E., Jr. The SMAS and the nasolabial fold. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 89: 1054, 1992. 8.Gosain, A. K., Yousif, N. J., Madiedo, G., Larson, D. L., Matloub, H. S., and Sanger, J. R. Surgical anatomy of the SMAS: A reinvestigation. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 92: 1254, 1993. 9.Yousif, N. J., Gosain, A., Matloub, H. 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